Mahatma Gandhi Essays (431 words) - Ascetics, Gujarati People

Mahatma Gandhi I am purely amazed by the astonishing personal revolution by which a simple inarticulate man transformed himself into the Mahatma, who ushered the British Empire out of India without even firing a shot. In the age of Empire and Military might he proved that the powerless had power and that force of arms would never prevail against force of spirit. Based on all this, Mahatma Gandhi surely deserved an award, which spoke of his efforts, his fight for freedom and justice and all his other contributions to this world. This award could be given to a few other people also who have been great reformers. It could be given to one who is a reformer, who has fought for the rights of the people, one who has fought against all the injustice, malpractices of this world, for the oppressed people. One who does not use his status, power and military to reform the world but his own might and that force of spirit to make this place a better world. One who displays the courage and conviction to stand for his beliefs. In short, he/she could be called the guiding light for peace in this world. Gandhi's concept of nonviolent resistance liberated one nation and sped the end of colonial empires around the world. His marches and fasts fired the imagination of oppressed people everywhere. Millions sought freedom and justice under Mahatma's guiding light. He proclaimed the power of love, peace and freedom. He fought for the rights of the Indians, for their freedom from the British. His principles surely made a difference in this world. In spite of being treated rudely and paying all sorts of penalties, he was never deterred. Many people, organizations and awards have already acknowledged Gandhi for his efforts. Recently he was rated the runner up Person of the Century second only to the great scientist Albert Einstein who had himself said that " the future generations will scarcely believe that such a man in flesh and blood, had tread this earth." in reference to Mahatma Gandhi. The British Broadcasting Corporation also voted him as the Man of the Millennium. Gandhi is a great man held in universal esteem, a figure lifted from history to moral icon. I would want to show my respect and reverence for him and also want to express that his efforts have not gone in vain and today even the children who are the future generation of this world remember and respect his work. I would like to call this award the "Life and Leaders" award. It would be given to a living or a dead person every year. I would first like to honor the so-called Father of the nation by the Indians, Mahatma Gandhi, by this award.

Assignment †Assessment of Numerical Methods Essay Example

Assignment – Assessment of Numerical Methods Essay Example Assignment – Assessment of Numerical Methods Paper Assignment – Assessment of Numerical Methods Paper Assignment – Assessment of Numerical Methods In my current project, I need to present, analyze and perform a quantitative data regarding two variables: (a) The dependant variable, which comprises of parental attitudes behaviour and knowledge towards children with ADHD; and the (b) independent variable – an intervention with the parents, which is the administration of the online course aimed at improving scores of the independent variable. The aim is to provide statistical evidence if the intervention had a significant effect on the parental attitudes and behaviour.   The first task of course is to define the two groups as Control or A – parents who did not take the course, and B- who had taken the course. A system of scoring needs to be devised so that any one parent’s perceptions and attitudes   Ã‚  are accurately reflected i.e. on a score of 0-100, based on the questionnaire designed rigorously   for the task.(Johnson 1984). Thereafter, the main task ahead is to compare the performance score of these two groups to draw conclusions.    The preliminary data analysis is based on calculating the means of the two groups.[ Ň = ∑x/n ]i.e. the sum total of all observed scores divided by the number of participants in each group. This will immediately give us an idea whether the scores for group B i.e. parents who had taken the course,   were sufficiently higher compared to those who had not (group A). But this is not sufficient to tell us whether the difference in scores is by chance alone or whether they are significant enough to conclude that the online course had made a real difference. The concept of normal distributions and standard deviations are applicable in this situation. (Salkind, 2000). If the number of parents observed are represented on a chart, on the y-axis and the score categories (e.g. 20-40, 40-60, so on)on the x-axis, and provided that the number of observations are high enough, the shape of the curve will resemble that of a bell ( Gaussian curve).(Cohen 1989) The highest number of obse rvations tend to be concentrated around the mean (calculated above), while those who have scored very low or very high will be further out. This is known as the normal distribution. At the same time it can be numerically measured, how much further from the mean the scores are distributed. In normal distribution curves,   about 68 % of scores tend to lie within ine standard deviation of the mean. For example, if the standard deviation in this case is about 10 points on the 0-100 score and the mean score is 70, then 68% of parents have scored between 60 and 80. (70-10 to 70+10). Standard deviations are calculated by a formula s = √[∑ (x- mean)/n-1], where differences in each score from the mean are calculated, added up, divided by the number of observations (less one) and their square root obtained.    The final concept   to use is that of standard error and confidence intervals. The standard error is defined as standard deviation divided by square root of sample size (s/√n)and multiplying it by Z-value, a number that calculates the number of standard deviations from the mean that our value will be likely to lie within. For example to be 95 % sure that our value is truly representative of the data, it must lie within 1.96 standard deviations    this is expressed as : for confidence level of 95 % the Z-value is 1.96. Thus applying it to standard error at 95 % confidence level, standard error (SE) = s/√n x 1.96. Finally, confidence intervals are calculated as : Confidence intervals (CI) = Mean  ± s/√n x 1.96 at confidence level of 95 %. In other words, we can say with a 95 % accuracy that the mean is a true representative sample, and has not occurred by chance alone. By this method we can calculate individually the mean, standard deviation, standard error and confidence intervals of the two groups A and B.    In order to compare the two group scores and find if they are significantly different, however, we have to apply special parametric tests like the Student T-test, which is outside the scope of this section. References Cohen, L. Manion, L. (1989). Research methods in education. London: Routledge Johnson, N. (1984). Sex, colour, and rites of passage in ethnographic research, Human Organization, 43(2), 108-120. Salkind, N.J. (2000). Statistics for people who (think they) hate statistics. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. ***

Alzheimer disease Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Alzheimer disease - Research Paper Example Some symptoms include decline in memory and cognitive abilities of the affected individual. This paper will discuss the causes of Alzheimer, its prevalence, the risk factors, signs and symptoms of the disease. The paper will also look at the prevention and treatment options available to the affected people. Alzheimer’s disease Introduction Ballenger (2006) asserts that Alzheimer is the most common form of dementia that leads to memory loss and cognitive decline. Alzheimer is a neurological disorder associated with degeneration of brain cells among individuals aged 65 years and above. The gradual loss of brain cells results from tangles in nerve cells and beta-amyloid plaques that develop in the brain. Some risk factors that contribute to the disease include having a history of high blood pressure, trauma and stress. Ballenger (2006) asserts that â€Å"some symptoms of the disease as memory loss, impaired thinking, changes in personality and disorientation thus ultimately cont ributes to decline in cognitive functioning and damage of brain cells in the cerebral cortex, p 89. Medical scientists assert that Alzheimer is caused by a combination of lifestyle, genetic and environmental factors that impair the brain over time. However, less than 5 percent of the cases result from genetic changes. In the US, more than 5 million people aged 65 years and above are believed to be living with the disease. According to the 2013 statistical report of Alzheimer’s Association, one-tenth of the citizens aged 65 years and above suffer from the disease while one-third of the citizens aged 85 years and above are living with the disease. According to the Association, the disease accounts for over 60 percent of all cases of dementia (Morgan & Carrasquillo, 2013). Alzheimer disease statistics It is estimated than 5 million Americans of all ages are suffering from the disease with an approximately 200,000 under the age of 65 suffering from the disease. One-tenth of peopl e aged 65 years and above is suffering from the disease while one-third of the people aged more than 85 years old have Alzheimer’s disease (Morgan & Carrasquillo, 2013). The prevalence of the disease among women is high than in men since two-thirds of the individuals suffering from the disease are women (Morgan & Carrasquillo, 2013). The deaths attributed to the disease increased by 68 percent between 2000 and 2010 while those attributed to other heart-related diseases declined by 16 percent. The number of people living with Alzheimer is estimated to increase by 40 percent to 7.1 million by 2050 (Morgan & Carrasquillo, 2013). Currently, the disease is the sixth largest cause of death in the US. The causes of Alzheimer disease Alzheimer is a neurodegenerative disease that is caused by death of brain cells that happens over a long period of time. According to Dash and Villemarette-Pittman (2005), the postmortem or autopsies of victims of the disease often show tiny inclusions o f in the nerve tissue thus suggesting the disease leads to death of the brain cells. Genetic, environmental and lifestyle factors that lead to death of brain cells thus leading to memory loss and decline in cognitive functioning of the individual (Welsh, 2006). Risk factors One of the risk factors that lead to Alzheimer is family history and genetics of an individual. Risk genes and deterministic genes influence the likelihood of developing the disease (Welsh, 2006). The risk genes is the apolipoprotein E-e4

Preditory Business Practice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Preditory Business Practice - Essay Example The bad thing with predatory lending that the borrower is left at a very big economic disadvantage, and this in most cases ends up disrupting their financial and economic stability. The fact that these bad loans are given to so many people mean that when these people are financially disrupted, the economy at the end will suffer (Moses, 2010). There is a debate of who should carry the blame and bear the responsibility with regard to such loans. The truth is that the loan originators use very aggressive and sometimes methods that border the illegal practices to be able to lure the borrowers. Most people do not have an inside understanding of how finances work and if the lenders refuse to disclose all the implications of the contract that a customer enters into when taking such a loan the borrower can end up entering into a predatory relationship. The loan may look attractive to the borrower while the truth is that it is very harmful and it will eventually place them at a point of disadvantage. However, both the borrower and the lender can be seen has bearing some level of reasonability when such a loan turns out to be a predatory loan. The lenders or the originators of these types of loans should bear some responsibility in that they cheat the customer to think that the loan is going to be simple to pay off and that it will leave them at an advantage. Most of these subprime lenders do not consider the customer’s interest when giving such loans but instead only look for ways to benefit them. In most cases, it is the loan brokers who benefit the most, sometimes even more that even the lenders themselves. In such a case, they have to bear the responsibility for not carrying out fair business activities. If a relationship between a lender (or a loan originator) can be said to be a contract, then the lenders may need to bear some of the

PC Accessibility Tools and Its Various Classroom Use Research Paper

PC Accessibility Tools and Its Various Classroom Use - Research Paper Example With over six million school aged children ranging from ages 3-17 in our schools today, The National Center for Education Statistics realizes that there is a need to help these students stay abreast of their educational needs. (â€Å"Assistive Technology Helps All Kids Learn†) That is where the Accessibility Tools option in all Windows products, in this case Windows *, comes in to â€Å"allow the user to customize their accessibility options in Windows 8†. (â€Å"Ease of Access Center in Windows 8†) Some classrooms will have vision impaired students. Their computers can be tailor suited to their visual shortcoming by using the accessibility tools set within the computer to help them better see their monitors. By using the â€Å"Make Computer Easier To See† command, the resolution can be adjusted to make the screen brighter or softer for the student to see the text. The Narrator may also be turned on in order to have the text read to the student. While the Audio Description tool can be used to have the video being shown on screen described to the student. The Magnifier can also be used to increase the font and icon size of the onscreen display so that the student can better navigate his way around the system. The Narrator and Audio Desription can also be used by students who are totally vision impaired (blind). (â€Å"Accessibility in the Classroom†)... Thus allowing the student the freedom to use the computer as he wishes for whatever particular need he has. (â€Å"Assistive Technology Helps All Kids Learn†) For students with Dexterity Impairment, the mouse can be turned off and its functions redirected to the arrow keys on the numeric keypad on a PC or the arrow keys on a laptop. Sticky keys can also assigned and used so that the user will no longer have to use combination presses such as ctrl+alt+del to execute certain keyboard shortcuts. The modern computers now have touch technology built into their screens thereby minimizing the need for an actual keyboard when using the PC, laptop, or tablet. Used in combination with Speech recognition, it becomes a lot easier for the dexterity impaired students to navigate their way through the various programs and commands within the computer. (â€Å"Accessibility in the Classroom†). In the case of students who are both hearing and vision impaired, they are not doomed to a lif e without education. Ease of Access tools within Windows 8 allows the units to be specially outfitted with Braille readers that can be used alongside the speech recognition, Audio, and Narrator tools of the system. Thus giving them the full effect of a modern day, computer based education in the classroom or the comfort of their own homes for those who are physically unable to come to class. (â€Å"Accessibility in the Classroom†) It is important to note however, that these accessibility tools are not limited in use to special needs students. The accessibility tools available on the computers can also be used by students who find themselves within special circumstances. Take for instance the case of a child who broke

Post Positivism History And Philosophy Psychology Essay

Post Positivism History And Philosophy Psychology Essay According to Cheek (2008, pp. 762-766) research design refers to the combination of three important and interrelated considerations requiring focused attention when formulating and conducting research; the theoretical foundations guiding research, data collection and analysis methods, as well as ethical concerns. Theoretical frameworks essentially provide a lens through which to examine and conduct research. Inherent to each framework are specific philosophical perspectives which inform and reflect the researchers ontological and epistemological views. The choice of theoretical framework will subsequently impact and guide decisions about research methods, which will then influence ethical considerations. Denzin and Lincoln (1994, as cited in Finlay Ballinger, 2006, pp. 16-17) identify four research paradigms underpinning the theoretical framework of a research project; positivist and post-positivist, constructivist-interpretive, critical, and feminist-post structural. While post-pos itivism is closely associated with the quantitative approach, interpretivism is embedded within the qualitative approach. Quantitative and Qualitative Baumgartner and Hensley (2006, p. 17) describe quantitative research as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦involving the collection of numerical data in order to describe phenomena, investigate relationships between variables, and explore cause-and-effect relationships of phenomena of interest. Quantitative data can be obtained from an extensive array of sources including experiments, randomised controlled trials, and structured observation. While quantitative data can be analysed using such methods as correlation, factor analysis, and psychometrics. At the most fundamental level, the quantitative research process is guided by application of the scientific method. This involves a set of structured steps through which the researcher moves in a logical and systematic manner to obtain knowledge, answer a question, or solve a problem (Baumgartner Hensley, pp. 9-11). While Haig (2010, p. 1326) identifies four dominant theories within the scientific method including the inductive and hypothetico-deductive me thods, Baumgartner and Hensley (2006, pp. 9-11) identify five basic steps inherent to this process: (1) Identifying the question; (2) Formulating a hypothesis; (3) Developing a research plan; (4) Collecting and analysing data; (5) Interpreting results and forming conclusions. Experimental research is characteristic of quantitative research. Accounting for independent variables, while identifying and classifying all other extraneous variables, the experimental researcher works to manipulate dependent variables with the aim of establishing direct (value-neutral, cause-and-effect) relationships between phenomena (Baumgartner Hensley, 2006, pp. 159-162). Garwood (2006, p. 251) identifies advantages of the quantitative method as including, its ability to measure change over time; the generalizability of research findings; and the variability of statistical analysis which numerical data allows. However qualitative researchers have criticised the quantitative method in its traditional positivist philosophy for its inability to analyse the social constructs influencing relationships and phenomena under investigation (Garwood, p. 251). According to Sumner (2006, p. 249) qualitative research à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦is concerned to explore the subjective meaning through which people interpret the world, the different ways in which reality is constructedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦in particular contexts. Qualitative data can be obtained through various methods such as interviews, action research, surveys, and observation. While qualitative data can be analysed through a myriad of methods including discourse analysis, hermeneutical analysis, and content analysis. Despite this diversity of approach, Finlay and Ballinger (2006, pp. 6-8) identify five commonalities which all qualitative researchers acknowledge and value (p. 6). These include: the impact of researcher subjectivity on knowledge production; the importance of the researcher-researched relationship; a commitment to hypothesis-generation through exploration and induction as opposed to hypothesis-testing; the influence of social constructs upon subjective experience, beliefs, and int erpretations; as well as the ambiguous, multiple, and fragmented nature of reality which is constantly shifting and open to re-signification (Finlay Ballinger, p. 6). According to Munhall (2007, p. 6), the value of qualitative research lies in its ability to provide insight and meaning into the situated context of individual experience. Acknowledging the contextual and dynamic nature of reality, qualitative research also allows for in-depth analysis of complex phenomena. As outlined by Sumner (2006, p. 249), criticisms of the qualitative approach commonly refer to a supposed lack of rigour and generalizability. These comments, however, appear more to reflect the different philosophical and theoretical aims of the qualitative and quantitative approach. For example, while quantitative researchers attempt to examine phenomena objectively, qualitative researchers employ reflexivity; identifying and explicitly stating their subjective values and bias (Baumgartner Hensley, 2006, p. 206). Further, while quantitative research is structured and rigorous in approach, establishing hypothesis and conducting experiments to test these, qualitative research is emergent; hypothesis are generated as the research process progresses with the development of new and unexpected patterns shifting the research focus (Baumgartner Hensley, pp. 202-203). Of importance, and as explicated by Sumner (2006, p. 249), qualitative research à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦is often based upon interpretivism, constructivism, and inductivism. Thus, while quantitative research is primarily deductive, attempting to control, explain, and predict phenomena external of influence; qualitative research attempts to understand, explore, and describe phenomena from within the social and cultu ral constructions of the lived experience. Post-Positivism History and Philosophy Classical positivism emerged from the works of August Comte (1789-1875). Comte believed that empirical verification (observation and measurement) was the foundation of all scientific development (Polifroni Welch, 1999, p. 8). During the 19th Century classical positivism was reconceptualised through the work of philosophers from the Vienna circle into what became known as logical positivism. As Polifroni and Welch (1999, p. 8) explain, logical positivists aimed to eliminate all metaphysical considerations from within the scientific process. The possibility of theory was rejected, with claims to knowledge justified through observation of phenomena, which logical positivists believed could be examined external to its context (Munhall, 2007, p. 127). By obtaining theory-neutral facts, logical positivists maintained it was possible to obtain objective truth and develop Universal Laws to describe and predict phenomena. The 20th Century philosopher and critical realist Karl Popper (1902-1994) challenged the assumptions of logical positivists, arguing all attempts at objectivity were inherently subjective. For Popper all knowledge is provisional, conjectural, hypothetical (Thornton, 2013 (Spring Edition) para. 19). Thus, as Thornton (2013 (Spring Edition) para. 19) explicates, scientific theories cannot be empirically verified, only momentarily confirmed or empirically falsified. Furthermore, Popper believed metaphysical questions should be returned to scientific enquiry to enable deeper analysis of phenomena (Polifroni Welch, 1999, p. 67). By acknowledging the fundamental relativity and fallibility of knowledge claims and enabling the exploration of ontological concerns, Popper believed science could advance through the constant redevelopment of theories as informed by previous falsifications (what he termed verisimilitude) to gradually arrive at a position closer to the truth (Thornton, 2013 (Spri ng Edition) para. 20-30). Poppers philosophical observations represent the foundations of post-positivism. Interpretivism History and Philosophy Interpretivism has a long, rich, and complex history which is compressed and rather succinctly explained by Scwandt (1994, as cited in Willis, 2007, p. 100) as having foundations in the German intellectual tradition of hermeneutics and the verstehen tradition of sociology, the phenomenology of Alfred Shutz, and critiques of scientism and positivism in the social sciences [including] the writings of ordinary language philosophers critical of logical empiricism. Interpretivsits believe what constitutes reality is socially constructed and that therefore, understanding the context in which research occurs is critical to the interpretation of data gathered (Willis, p. 98). Unlike post-positivist research, interpretivist research does not seek to gain knowledge through explanation but rather through understanding (Willis, p. 98). As Willis (2007, p. 100) states, this fundamental distinction was first made by William Dilthey (1813-1911) who proposed that although explanation (erklaren) and the establishment of Universal laws may be an appropriate aim for the natural sciences; it is incompatible for research in the cultural (human) sciences. Instead, Dilthey believed the human sciences should focus upon gaining meaning through understanding (verstehen). An aim achieved by examination of the lived experience. Diltheys conceptualisation of interpretivism reflect his origins in hermeneutics; a tradition which Baumgartner and Hensley (2006, p. 203) describe as fundamental to qualitative research. Hermeneutics, given foundations by Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768-1834) (Munhall, 2007, p. 111), refers to a theory and method of interpretation; of discovering hidden meaning by understanding the context in which meaningful human action occurs (Baumgartner Hensley, 2006, p. 203). According to Willis (2007, p. 104) philosophical hermeneutics is grounded in interpretivist epistemology; rejecting foundationalism in favour of a subjective, contextual understanding. This grounding was heavily influenced by the work of Martin Heidegger (1889-1976), through whose efforts the entire foundation of philosophy shifted from an epistemological to an ontological focus. Challenged by the work of Edmund Husserl, Heidegger developed a hermeneutical interpretation of phenomenology (Finlay Ballinger, 2006, pp. 186-187) aimed at understanding the experience of being-in-the-world or Dasein (Wheeler, 2013 (Spring Edition)). Enabling analysis and interpretation of experience or phenomena, through which themes and meaning emerge, is the hermeneutic circle. As explained by Willis (2007, p. 106), during this process the researcher constantly shifts between the parts and the whole; continually revising and further developing interpretations by moving from the research topic, to the research context, to the researchers own subjective understanding. Originally developed by Dilthey (Polifroni Welch, 1999, p. 242), the circle was reconceptualised by Heidegger to reflect and inform his ontological investigations, coming to represent the interplay between our self-understanding and our understanding of the world (Ramberg Gjesdal, 2009 (Summer Edition) para. 33). Appropriated by the existentialist Hans-Georg Gadamer in his search for à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦an understanding of understanding (Polifroni Welch, 1999, p. 242) the circle remains in use today; representative of the origins of interpretivism. Post-Positivism and Interpretivism As the preceding sections have alluded, post-positivism is grounded in the ontology of critical realism. Post-positivists therefore maintain that although there exists an external reality independent of human consciousness, obtaining a truly objective view of this reality is not possible. Nonetheless, the post-positivist preserves objectivity as an ideal in the search for truth. Conversely, interpretivism is grounded in the ontology of relativism. Thus, interpretivists believe not only that access to an objective reality is impossible as all knowledge is contextually relative, but that there exists no universal truths (Smith, 2008, p. 275). These foundational beliefs are reflected within the data collection and analysis processes. Creswell (2003, as cited in Baumgartner Hendley, 2007, p. 201) identifies four types of qualitative data collection methods: documents, observation, audio-visual, and interviews. According to Rebar and Macnee (2011, p. 151) at the most foundational level, data collected in qualitative studies should function to enable the researcher to à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦construct a description of the meaning of the variables under study. This is in comparison to quantitative data collection methods which à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦aim to measure the variables of interest clearly, specifically, and accurately(Rebar Macnee, p. 155). Reflecting the aim of statistical analysis of numerical data, quantitative data collection methods may include chemical laboratory tests, systematic observations, physiologic measurement or highly structured questionnaires (Rebar Macnee, p. 155). In relation to data analysis, Rebar and Macnee (2011, p. 69) assert that while organising and assessing data to find meaning remains the same for both the qualitative and quantitative approach, methods to achieve this aim differ considerably. For example, within the qualitative research approach the aim is to describe and explain; to gain insight into a specific experience or phenomena, understood as contextual and relative (Rebar Macnee, p. 69). While in contrast, results obtained from quantitative data analysis (which may also describe and explain) primarily aim to infer and predict; to be generalizable beyond the specific research setting (Rebar Macnee, pp. 66-67). As Baumgartner and Hensley (2006, pp. 323-341) state, central to attaining inference from quantitative data is the presence of objectivity, reliability, and validity during data collection. Conversely, avoiding error and establishing rigor within qualitative data collection and analysis requires the researcher to constantly review data to ensure its trustworthiness, confirmability, transferability, and credibility (Rebar Macnee, 2011, p. 151). Therefore, while the quantitative researcher employs formulae and statistical methods to organise data and extract meaning; the qualitative researcher derives meaning via methods of induction and interpretation. As explained by Julian (2008) the intellectual process (para. 1) of content analysis, within which the qualitative researcher categories and codes data identifying dominant themes which are subsequently explored and described, represents one of these methods. With the aim of comparing and contrasting the post-positivist and interpretivist research paradigms, this essay began by delineating the fundamental distinctions between the quantitative and qualitative research method. Following this, the history and philosophy of both post-positivism and interpretivism were outlined, with significant figures impacting upon each paradigm identified. Finally, methodological differences between the post-positivists and interpretivist research paradigms were compared and contrasted, with differences within data collection and analysis methods of each framework outlined. In summary, while post-positivism emerged from the work of Karl Popper, is associated with the quantitative research method, and adopts a critical realist philosophy; interpretivism emerged from the work of William Dilthey and Martin Heidegger, is associated with the qualitative research method, and adopts a relativist philosophy. Depending on research aims, post-positivism and interpre tivism offer two unique and characteristic frameworks which function to guide and inform the research process.

Management Information :: essays research papers fc

Planning for Management Information System Planning for Management Information System The biggest challenge and most critical success factor in reengineering projects are persuading the people within the organization to cooperate. When you begin to computerize a legacy system considers the advantages; reduced clerical cost, quicker processing time and improved customer service. Everyone knows that the computer capabilities alone make life a lot easier for all managers. The advantage of time and accuracy spread over the lifespan of the information system means improved long-term vision and focus for top, middle and lower managers. A management information system (MIS) focus is on information that management needs to prepare its job. This task becomes much more difficult when the major players have a tradition of high independence, are often confrontational to management, and are irreplaceable independent contractors. CIO's in major business organizations face exactly this situation; further complicated by the fact that the reengineering effort is crucial to the continued existence of the organization. Such discussion has driven the software industry to focus attention on software specifically designed to support the team approach essential to most service and customer oriented organizations. The importance of teamwork can not be over emphasize in achieving overall organizational goals, and the need to capture and manage an organization's knowledge base remain crucial. This teamwork enables the organization to achieve and sustain competitive advantage in their business. In considering the framework for an information system (IS) each level operational, tactical and strategic planning requires different IS. At the operational planning system, the IS collect, validate and record transactional data relating to acquisition or disbursement of resources. The data for account receivable and payables, payrolls, inventory level, shipping data, printed invoice and cash receipts recorded as they occur. The operational-level IS characteristic are repetitive, predictable, emphasizes the past and detailed in nature just to name a few. The focus of the operational system is the daily tasks performed at the user level. The operational level manager uses this data to check every day tasks, i.e. ordering, shipping, inventory control, the essence of the business processes. The second level in the framework is the tactical system. This system provide middle-level managers with information to monitor and control operation while allocating their resources efficiently. The data is summarized, aggregated, or analyzed with a wide range of reports, i.e., summary, exception and ah hoc reports. The tactical information system differs from Management Information :: essays research papers fc Planning for Management Information System Planning for Management Information System The biggest challenge and most critical success factor in reengineering projects are persuading the people within the organization to cooperate. When you begin to computerize a legacy system considers the advantages; reduced clerical cost, quicker processing time and improved customer service. Everyone knows that the computer capabilities alone make life a lot easier for all managers. The advantage of time and accuracy spread over the lifespan of the information system means improved long-term vision and focus for top, middle and lower managers. A management information system (MIS) focus is on information that management needs to prepare its job. This task becomes much more difficult when the major players have a tradition of high independence, are often confrontational to management, and are irreplaceable independent contractors. CIO's in major business organizations face exactly this situation; further complicated by the fact that the reengineering effort is crucial to the continued existence of the organization. Such discussion has driven the software industry to focus attention on software specifically designed to support the team approach essential to most service and customer oriented organizations. The importance of teamwork can not be over emphasize in achieving overall organizational goals, and the need to capture and manage an organization's knowledge base remain crucial. This teamwork enables the organization to achieve and sustain competitive advantage in their business. In considering the framework for an information system (IS) each level operational, tactical and strategic planning requires different IS. At the operational planning system, the IS collect, validate and record transactional data relating to acquisition or disbursement of resources. The data for account receivable and payables, payrolls, inventory level, shipping data, printed invoice and cash receipts recorded as they occur. The operational-level IS characteristic are repetitive, predictable, emphasizes the past and detailed in nature just to name a few. The focus of the operational system is the daily tasks performed at the user level. The operational level manager uses this data to check every day tasks, i.e. ordering, shipping, inventory control, the essence of the business processes. The second level in the framework is the tactical system. This system provide middle-level managers with information to monitor and control operation while allocating their resources efficiently. The data is summarized, aggregated, or analyzed with a wide range of reports, i.e., summary, exception and ah hoc reports. The tactical information system differs from

What Role Do Mobile Phones Play in Society?

1. What role do mobile phones play in society? Discuss the influence of technology on everyday life: relationships, social movements and education. Mobile phones have a major impact on modern society as they are increasingly useful social tools. In 2004, ‘there were almost two billion mobile subscribers world-wide’ Arminen 2007. The majority of worldwide businesses use this technology to communicate. Mobiles have changed the way people organise activities, meetings and social occasions, and generally the way people go about living everyday life. Mobile phones increase contact with peers, so a person can always know what’s going on with those close to them. They help people communicate more efficiently, anywhere on the planet. Mobile phones have developed multi-features they are more than just a phone and can be used for sending text messages, taking photos, surfing the internet, playing music, using a calculator, setting an alarm, playing games, sending email, checking the time, calendar, maps, GPS, banking, radio, business’s such as voice memos, and are capable of an amazing amount of functions and some have many more functions than a computer, have the added bonus of high portability. On the down side however mobile phones can break down personal barriers where a person can find it hard to have any personal time, or participate fully in their present environment without interruptions as the majority of people never turn off their phone, so there is always constant communication. Modern day society has formed a very strong reliance on mobile phones where most individuals cannot leave home without their mobiles and have developed a need to be constantly contacted. Overall mobiles have a very large influence on relationships. Mobile phones play a huge role specifically in adolescences relationships. Mobile phone technology allows us to communicate with social groups in new ways, and to reaffirm those relationships, regardless of distance. SMS connects individuals in a non intrusive way so time and physical location are no longer important boundaries to communication (Horstmanshof & Power, 2005) instead the shortness of the message is more important indicator of uptake giving rise to creative code. Horstmanshof and Power’s research looked at how the new communication was being taken up by what groups, and the rules, communication and social interaction of those groups. The results showed that SMS was mostly used to tighten close relationships. Mobile phones provide an easier way to communicate, and helps some shy adolescences become more social. Furthermore text message or SMS, help adolescences ‘check each other out’ (Cupples & Thompson 2010) without embarrassment of getting rejected by a potential partner. Mobile phones assist in taking away any awkwardness on the next appointment or date by getting to know a stranger or potential partner (Cupples & Thompson), by facilitating the asking of questions a person wouldn’t normally ask face to face. Despite their many positives mobile phones can have a negative side. All the availability leaves people with little personal uninterrupted. As Horstmanshof and Power describe ‘it's like you are inviting the whole world into your space’ at any time the mobile is on. The easily accessible, relatively cheap and individualised nature of mobile phones has increased their popularity to the point where they have changed the way people interact at work as well as at home (Geser 2010). Mobile phones are increasingly breaking down the boundaries between work and home. Mobiles have changed the way individuals make decisions from individual to more consultative, the way people report emergencies, the social messages of status or connectedness we send to others who witness our calls, the way people participate in the present with increasing interruptions, the way people keep social obligations and the way people can change appointments at short notice, the way we can access greater amounts of information, and importantly, the change from a specific, location based communication system (landline) to an individual recipient. Geser suggests mobiles allow an individual to carry the cocoon of another place to where we are at present which may be a different place emotionally as well as physically to our current location and we need to skillfully maneuver between the two. This is particularly important in the work home boundaries. We need to make new decisions about when we are interrupted and how to deal with the present social or work situations (Geser) which may result in more self control as well as more social control like requesting people turn off their phones before meetings. Geser also supports that with their great ease mobiles also raise some concerns about people but especially children being less independent, and about mobile phone use contributing to fracturing social cohesion through subgroups potentially challenging the norm and the lesser social influence of more formal networks to increasingly informal networks. Technology has evolved where a person can access almost anything on their mobile phone including the internet, so that information is very easily accessible. Mobiles can help students do calculations through the use of a calculator or using specific programs on a computer such as the SPSS program Swinburne University uses for statistics. Encyclopedias are readily accessed online mostly for free which helps a person access the information they need at any time regardless of library opening hours or physical location. Almost all information is available at a click of a button. There is also computer assistant learning programs (Cradler et. l 2002) such as ‘cogmed working memory training’ (a memory training used for individuals with short term memory difficulties) that can be accessed through the mobile. Individuals are also not limited to working on a farm if they live in regional parts of the world as there is university and high schools based online and accessible through mobiles. However there are consequences of having to much easily accessible information. People become too dependent on often superficial information and don’t research as thoroughly. Skills, such as spelling are often diminished as Microsoft Word corrects spelling mistakes and even helps with grammar. Less effort is required in modern day society where it can be argued people are fed information. It has also become easy to plagiarize (Snooks and Co, 2002) and copy other peoples work and pass it off as your own but also easily to be found out. References Arminen, I, 2007, ‘Review Essay, Mobile Communication Society? ’, Mobile Communication Society? , v. 53, no. 1 University of Tampere viewed 19 March 2010 http://asj. sagepub. com Cogmed, 1999 Karolinska Institute, viewed 6 April 2010, http://www. cogmed. com/ Cupples, J ; Thompson, L, 2010, ‘Heterotextuality and Digital Foreplay', Feminist Media Studies, v. 10, no. 1, pp. 1-17, Ebscohost viewed 19 March 2010 http://www. informaworld. com/smpp/content~db=all~content=a919196107 Geser, H, 2004, ‘Towards a Sociological Theory of the Mobile Phone’, ‘Sociology in Switzerland: Sociology of the Mobile Phone’, Google Scholar viewed 16 March 2010 http://socio. ch/mobile/t_geser1. pdf Horstmanshof, L, ; Power, MR, 2005, ‘Mobile phones, SMS, and relationships’, Humanities ; Social Sciences papers, v. 32, no. 1, pp. 33-52, Bond University viewed 16 March 2010 http://epublications. bond. edu. au/hss_pubs/75/ Snooks and Co 2002, Style manual for authors, editors and printers, 6th edn, John Wiley ; Sons, Milton, Qld. Published 2010

Medicine and law Essays

Medicine and law Essays Medicine and law Essay Medicine and law Essay Introduction It is now a firmly established belief that legal and ethical considerations are integral to medical practice in the planning for the care of the patient. With the advances in medical sciences and growing sophistication of the legal framework in modern society as well as increasing awareness of human rights and changing moral principles of the community at large, doctors and other healthcare workers alike are now frequently caught in difficult dilemmas in many aspects arising from daily practice. Examples are plenty such as the duty to respect informed consent, truth-telling, breach of confidentiality, disclosure  of medical errors, rationing of scarce health resources, biomedical research, organ donation, etc. Besides, there is also growing anxiety both within the medical profession and in the community regarding increasing trends of complaints and lawsuits against doctors. From the bitter experience of many doctors who were engaged in complaint or lawsuits in the past, many of them had resulted from failing of their doctor-patient communication skill or inadequate ability to comprehend and resolve dilemmas in clinical settings. Medical ethics has developed into a well based discipline which acts as a bridge between theoretical bioethics  and the bedside. 1 The goal is to improve the quality of patient care by identifying, analysing, and attempting to resolve the ethical problems that arise in practice. 2 In addition to our moral obligations, doctors are also bound by laws and official regulations which form the legal framework regulating medical practice. It is now a universal consensus that legal and ethical considerations are inherent and inseparable parts of good medical practice across the whole spectrum. The disciplines of law and ethics in medical practice overlap in many areas and yet each has its unique parameters and distinct focus. Legal and Ethical Regulations of Medical Practice in History In ancient Egypt, practice of medicine was subject to legal restrictions. The right to practise was restricted to members of a certain class, and all doctors had to learn and follow the percepts laid down by their predecessors. Obviously, this was to protect the public from quackery. Fees for the doctors were paid by the State. If unsatisfactory results followed a course of treatment that had departed from the orthodox, the doctor responsible would be liable to punishment, which could be very harsh. Similar legal restrictions on medical practice were also  found in other early civilizations such as Babylon and India. 3 Throughout the history of mankind, medical legislation has continuously evolved to regulate the practice of medicine. The fundamental objective is to safeguard the standards of the medical profession and to protect the public against unskilled vendors of medicine who would be as injurious to the community as other criminals. The Justinian Code of the Byzantine Empire in 529 AD is probably the earliest law code found to contain clauses to require educational standard and proof of competence of doctors by examinations. It also restricted the number of doctors in each town and penalties were imposed for malpractice. By 12th century, there were well established medical legislations in Italy, namely the edict of Roger II of Sicily in 1140 and Frederick II in 1224, to prescribe organized medical teaching, set courses, examinations and qualifications. 3 In Hong Kong, laws on public health and medical practice, essentially an adoption of the English Acts, had been introduced from the early days. In 1884, the first Medical Registration Ordinance was enacted to regulate the practice of medicine in the territory. Nowadays, the Hong  Kong Medical Council is established and empowered by law to perform the following major functions: (a) assessment of qualifications and maintenance of Register of Medical Practitioners, and registration is the only valid licence to practise medicine; (b) formulating guidelines on the ethical and professional standards; (c) investigation of complaints of professional misconduct; (d) supervision of medical education and training; and (e) assessment of fitness to practise where a doctors health is of concern. 4 In addition to legal regulation, there were also codes of medical ethics to guide the doctors for proper conduct. The earliest code of medical ethics is the Hippocratic Oath originated in Greece in the 5th century BC, which evolved to regulate the standard of conduct and care by 4 MEDICAL SECTION August 2003 the medical profession at that time. 3 Indeed, the spirit of this 25-century old Oath was restated in the Declaration of Geneva by the World Medical Association in 1948. The Declaration is the basis of the modern version of the International Code of Medical Ethics, which was first formulated by the World Medical Association in 1949 with subsequent amendments by the World Medical Assembly  in 1968 and 1983 in Sydney and Venice respectively. Meaning of Law and Medical Ethics in a Nutshell In its simplest context, law can be defined as enforced rules devised by the State to govern the behaviour of its members for the mutual benefits of all. Observance of the rules must be guaranteed by some kinds of sanction directed against the rule breakers. In addition to laws for the general public, doctors are bounded by certain specific rules stipulated in statutes as well as code of professional conduct laid down by the official regulating authority, namely the Medical Council, and administrative codes  set by the institutions. Together, they form the legal framework regarding the practice of medicine, violation of which may lead to criminal or civil liability, or disciplinary actions. In addition to legal obligations, there are also expectations of society for the doctors and the goal of the profession based on long established moral principles of self-evident value, which define the moral framework of medical practice. Medical ethics can be defined as a self-imposed code of conduct accepted voluntarily within the medical profession, the observance of which depends on ones conscience and moral values. Law and medical ethics are both dynamic and are in a constant state of change with time due to changing circumstances and societal values. Thus, new legislation and court decisions give rise to changes of the law and new ethical issues emerge in response to challenges created by new technology, law or other influence. There is also wide difference in law from country to country because of factors regarding religion, culture, traditions, political systems and social standards. Fundamental Principles in Medical Ethics5 Medical ethics is an applied ethics which involves examining specific controversial issues such as abortion,  breach of confidentiality, end-of-life care, rationing of scarce medical resources. The objective is to try to identify the issue concerned, analyze it with reasoned ideas and arguments and arrive at a viable and morally acceptable resolution for it. In the realm of medical practice, it is difficult to hold rules or principles that are absolute in view of the many variables that exist in the context of clinical cases as well as new issues that arise as a result of changing circumstances and belief. Nevertheless, over the years, there are certain fundamental principles that have won a general acceptance as guideposts in the  moral analysis of ethical dilemmas in medicine. The fundamental principles that apply generally to medicine or health care at large are: (a) respect of patients autonomy; (b) the principle of nonmaleficence, i. e. , the duty to avoid harm or injury to patients; (c) the principle of beneficence, i. e. , the duty to do good to your patients, relieve their pain and suffering and to save life if you can; and (d) the principle of justice and act fairly. The values that encompass the four fundamental principles in medical ethics are self-evident. They are considered to be doctors prima facie duties to the patients  and society. It is necessary for a doctor to take all of them into account when they are applicable to the clinical case under consideration. Not infrequently, when two or more principles apply, they may be in conflict. For instance, the decision to operate on a case of acute appendicitis involves at least two competing prima facie duties on the part of the doctor. At one end, the doctor is obliged to provide the greatest benefit to the patient by performing an immediate appendectomy. At the other end, surgery and general anesthesia carry risks and the doctor is under the obligation to avoid causing harm to the patient. The resolution adopted must base on a balance between the demands of the competing principles by determining which carries more weight in the particular case. In the case of appendicitis, a generally accepted rational calculus holds that the patient is in far greater risk of harm from a ruptured appendix if the doctor do not act, than from the operation and anesthesia if the doctor proceed to surgery. Law and Medicine Broadly speaking, medical matters come into interaction with law in four aspects: (a) legislation and administrative regulations affecting medical practice; (b) court judgments  on problematic or controversial ethical issues in medicine; (c) medical matters or personnel may become subjects of lawsuits when issues of medical malpractice or alleged medical negligence arise; and (d) use of medical matters as evidence in courts for other criminal or civil proceedings such as cases of homicide, rape, wounding, workmans compensation, insurance claims and the like. The Interaction of Law and Ethics in Medical Practice Despite their distinctive roles, law and medical ethics overlap in many areas. It is indeed difficult to dissociate the legal and ethical basis of the professional duties of  doctors. For instance, both law and medical ethics address to issues of confidentiality, euthanasia, abortion, use of dangerous drugs, medical malpractice and the like. MEDICAL SECTIONVol. 8 No. 6 5 Both law and medical ethics aim at safeguarding a good standard of medical practice within the community. The overriding consideration is to ensure the health and welfare of the general public. It is fundamental that doctors should be law abiding or they may face civil/criminal consequences due to breach of the standards prescribed by legal requirements. On the other hand, an ethics percept that is not adopted into  law may be a significant professional and moral guidance but it is generally not enforceable. Often, lawmakers (courts and legislature) do take into account the views of medical profession, which may include ethical principle, when crafting laws affecting medical practice. Thus, ethical standards can be incorporated in the legislation and become part of the legal standards. At times, a doctors prima facie ethical duty may clash with his legal obligation. A notable example that often occurs is when the duty of confidentiality has to be breached by a court order and refusal to disclosure  amounts to contempt of court. It is true that law is the established social rules for conduct which, in most instance, incorporates ethical standards to which the society subscribe. However, there are also instances when laws may be bent to reach socially compelling results, which can deviate from what is ethical. An entire society can become morally corrupt. No doubt, the doctors in Nazi Germany and Japan who had participated in the most notorious human experimentations during the Second World War were ethically wrong and were convicted of war criminals in subsequent trials, although  their behaviour were not legally wrong under their social standards at that time. Growing Attention to Legal and Ethical Issues in Medical Practice Attention to legal and ethical issues in medical practice is growing intense in recent years both within the medical profession and in all sectors of the society. The ethical issues raised by new medical advances and the rapidly changing public values have provoked much debates among medical professionals and in other disciplines including lawyers, philosophers, sociologists, theologians, mass media and the community at large. Large scale  programmes such as the human genome project, end- of-life care, priority setting, rationing of medical resources, womens health have attracted profound research interest in their ethical, legal and social issues. The propensity to litigate is also on the uprising trend in recent years. This is part and parcel of the general trend that people nowadays are more conscious of litigation in all areas of life, particularly in the light of the increased awareness of their legal and human rights as well as rules of law. During the past century or so, medicine has evolved more as a science than as a mystical art. The media has also reduced the complex medical sciences to a level that will allow the general population to comprehend. Moreover, consumerism is now firmly established in medical practice and this has been promoted on a wide scale by patients rights organizations as well as authorities through public education and introduction of charters and performance pledges. In recent decades, there has also been a fall of the traditional paternalism in medical practice. Thus, the patients and their families are now more ready to speak up to protect their rights, to raise questions or doubts on the conduct  and skill of their doctors. Furthermore, issues of infringement of patients rights, malpractice and medical negligence are now attracting wide media coverage. This has undoubtedly served to alert the general public to such possibilities. The increase in medical negligence claims and litigation on issues of malpractice in recent years is reflected both in the number of lawsuits and the tremendous sum of monetary value involved. There is now greater availability of lawyers as well as compensation claim agencies who are ready to assist the patients and their families to institute legal actions against their doctors. A greater proportion of the general population is now aware that the courts can and, on occasion, do provide substantial monetary compensation for personal injury. This has obviously enhanced the growing compensation awareness in the public mind. Even in a lawsuit that has not been successful in proving the defendant doctors liability to the plaintiffs personal injury, it can still devastate the doctors career because of the media coverage it receives. The new wave of class-action lawsuits against healthcare professionals and organizations in North America is particularly worrying. The assembling of a  group of plaintiffs instead of a single plaintiff greatly expands the defendants exposure to liability. Besides, it is also likely that the media attention on such a case will attract additional potential plaintiffs. 6 Another factor that has been suggested by some health care professionals is the depersonalization of the doctor- patient relationship. It is undoubtedly easier to sue a relatively anonymous defendant, such as a hospital consultant, than to sue a family doctor whom one has known for years, and this is even truer of hospital authorities. The Scope of Law and Ethics in Medical  Practice The scope of law and ethics in medical practice is expanding all the time. Any attempt in listing out the core topics can neither be complete nor prescriptive. Some topics are of interest to doctors of all specialties whilst some topics are more important to particular specialties. The following list is based largely on the consensus statement of the teachers of medical ethics and law in 6 MEDICAL SECTION August 2003 UK on a model for core curriculum in medical ethics and law within medical education: 1. Official regulations of medical practice (a) Statutes laid down by legislature e. g.  Cap 161 Medical Registration Ordinance Cap 134 Dangerous Drugs Ordinance Cap 137 Antibiotics Ordinance Cap 138 Pharmacy and Poisons Ordinance (b) List of Misconduct in a Professional Respect issued by the Medical Council of Hong Kong7 2. Foundations of doctor-patient relationship1,5 (a) Doctors obligation of fidelity – patients expect that doctors are trustworthy, knowledgeable and competent. Doctors are looked upon as trustees of patients medical welfare, always acting in the interests of the patients. We owe a duty of not causing harm to our patients (the principle of nonmaleficence). We also have a duty to do good  to our patients if we can (the principle of beneficence). (b) Respect of patients rights, including the basic principle of human rights and their relations with moral and professional duties. (c) Respect of privacy and confidentiality – the doctor- patient relationship is essentially founded on trust and confidence. Doctors are expected to respect for patients privacy and disclose patients information only when justified. At times, there is often conflict of interest between individuals or between and individual and the public with regard to disclosure of patients information. There is also  legal requirement to protect privacy in the general sense (Cap 486 Personal Data (Privacy) Ordinance). (d) Respect of patients autonomy informed consent and refusal to treatment are basic patients rights. There are several related issues regarding the determination of patients capacity to share in decision-making (patients competence), the principle of risk-benefit equation to decide how much information to be given to patients (therapeutic privilege) and the concept of surrogate decision in cases of incompetent patients. Difficult dilemmas can arise when this is in conflict with other prima facie duties of the  doctors such as the situation when emergency interventions are required in cases of incompetent patients. (e) The difficult patients, noncompliance, hostile patients and abuse of patients rights. (f) Breach of duties leading to medical negligence or malpractice claims. 3. Death and related issues (a) The definition and diagnosis of death. (b) The persistent vegetative state – what is the meaning of human life: an organism or a person with body and mind? Is there a need for advancing the definition of life; from somatic death and brain stem death to neocortical death? 8 (c) End-of-life care – whether life support decision is  to prolong life or suffering? Difficult issues of medical futility, forgoing life-sustaining treatment, doctor-assisted suicide and euthanasia have immense ethical and legal implications. A fundamental question for doctors is whether letting to die is the same as euthanasia. 8 (d) Legal and ethical issues in organ transplantation. 9 (e) Death certification and disposal of dead bodies. 10, 11 (f) Coroner and medico-legal investigations of death. 12 4. Reproductive medicine and genetics (a) The management of infertility – the legal and ethical issues in artificial insemination and surrogate motherhood. (b) The control of fertility – sterilization and other forms of contraception. (c) The right of foetus – the legal13 and ethical issues in abortion and the question of maternal-foetal conflict. (d) Prenatal screening and wrongful life, genetic counseling and eugenics. (e) Genetic therapy – whether it is to treat the abnormal or to improve the normal. (f) Cloning of human being – its legal and ethical considerations. 5. Biomedical human research and experimentation (a) The legal14 and ethical15 regulations. (b) Ethics committee consultations. (c) The discrepancy between developed and developing countries. 6.  Special issues in psychiatry (a) Legal16 and ethical justification for detention and treatment without consent. (b) Informed consent in patients suffering from mental illness – the question of competence by the state of mind. (c) Conflicts of interests between the patients, families and the society. (d) Mental disorders and crime – mental disorders and liabilities of an individual and issues of compulsory treatment for offenders (especially in cases of sex offenders); the role of psychiatrist as an expert witness. 7. Special issues in paediatrics (a) Consent in minor. (b) Conflicts of interest between parental rights, the  rights of the child and the duty of the paediatrician. (c) Legal and ethical issues in cases of child abuse. 17 (d) The paediatricians role in child protection. 8. Healthcare delivery and resource allocation18 (a) Dilemmas in deciding a fair distribution of scarce medical resources and the rights of individual patient to healthcare services. (b) Healthcare cost crisis: its political, social and economic implications. 19 (c) The criteria for rationing healthcare resources and MEDICAL SECTIONVol. 8 No. 6 7 the sustainability of the healthcare services – does rationing simply means cutting or trimming  healthcare budget? What is a fair healthcare policy? What is the direction of healthcare reform? (d) Ethical considerations in the business aspects of healthcare – economic constraints, models of remuneration, professional freedom. The issues related to Health Maintenance Organizations and other managed care providers. (e) Responsibility of individuals for their own health. (f) Global distributions of healthcare resources: a gross unevenness. 9. Quality assurance (a) Continuity of care for patients. (b) Communications between doctors and patients, doctors and doctors. The duty to consult when  necessary. (c) Peer review and clinical audits, continuous medical education. (d) Truth-telling, disclosure of medical errors and incompetent colleagues. 20, 21 (e) Healthcare complaints – what is a fair and user- friendly mechanism to receive and resolve complaints. 10. Use of medical matters as evidence in courts (a) The medical witness – a doctor may be called to attend courts to give professional or expert evidence, or both. The objective of medical evidence is to assist the court in determining the truth and hence enabling justice to be done. A medical witness must have impartiality, reliability,  clarity and relevancy. His duty is to give evidence on a scientific objective manner commensurating with his role as a doctor as well as his expertise. (b) The issue of hired gun. (c) Conflict between a doctors duties to his patient and his role as a medical witness. Conclusion In recent years, teaching of law and ethics in medical practice has emerged as a core curriculum in both undergraduate and postgraduate medical education in many developed countries such as the US, Canada, UK, Australia and New Zealand. 22, 23 Research and discussion papers on clinical ethics and reports on medico-legal  cases now constitute a significant contribution to the expansion of medical literature, which have enriched our knowledge in the areas with widening scopes. 2 This is perhaps a major area that the medical education and training in Hong Kong need to catch up. Doctors are now expected to have knowledge and understanding of the principles of medical ethics and the legal responsibilities of the medical profession. They should also have the ability to recognize complex legal and ethical issues arising from clinical practice and sound decision-making skills to resolve them. 24 Often there is  no single or universal answer to such issues. The views within the medical profession as well as the public change constantly with time and vary from one country to another. It is therefore prudent for doctors to keep themselves informed about the current views, and when in doubt, be ready to consult their peers, lawyers and ethicists. References 1. Fletcher JC, Hite CA, Lombardo PA, Marshall MF, eds. Introduction to Clinical Ethics. Frederick Maryland: University Publishing Group, 1995. 2. Siegler M, Pellegrino ED, Singer PA. Clinical ethics revisited. BMC Medical Ethics 2001; (available from: biomedcentral. com/1742-6939/2/1). 3. Camps FE ed. Gradwohls Legal Medicine, Chapter 1. Bristol: John Wright Sons Ltd. , 3rd edition, 1976. 4. The Medical Council of Hong Kong Homepage: mchk. org. hk. 5. Beauchamp TL, Childress JF. Principles of Biomedical Ethics. New York: Oxford University Press, 4th edition, 1994 6. Lightstone S. Class-action lawsuits medicines newest legal headache. JAMC 2001;165(5):622. 7. Medical Council of Hong Kong. Professional Code and Conduct: For the Guidance of Registered Medical Practitioners. Hong Kong: HKMC, revised 2000. 8. Arras JD, Steinbock B, eds. Ethical Issues in Modern  Medicine, Part II: Defining Death, Forgoing Life-Sustaining Treatment, and Euthanasia. Mountain View, California: Mayfield Publishing Co. , 4th edition, 1995. 9. Cap 465 Human Organ Transplant Ordinance, Law of Hong Kong. 10. Cap 174 Births and Deaths Registration Ordinance, Law of Hong Kong. 11. Cap 132 Public Health and Municipal Services Ordinance, Law of Hong Kong. 12. Cap 504 Coroners Ordinance, Law of Hong Kong. 13. Cap 212 Offence Against Persons Ordinance, Law of Hong Kong. 14. Cap 278 Medical (Therapy, Education and Research) Ordinance, Law of Hong Kong. 15. Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences. International Ethical Guidelines for Biomedical Research Involving Human Subjects. CIOMS, revised 2002. 16. Cap 136 Mental Health Ordinance, Law of Hong Kong. 17. Social Welfare Department, Government of HKSAR. Procedures for Handling Child Abuse Cases. Hong Kong: SWD, revised 1998. 18. McKneally MF, Dickens BM, Meslin EM, Singer PA. Bioethics for clinicians: 13. Resource allocation. CMAJ 1997;157: 163-7. 19. Health and Welfare Bureau, Government of HKSAR. Lifelong Investment in Health: Consultation Document on Health Care Reform. Hong Kong: 2001. 20. Hebert PC, Levin AV, Robertson G. Bioethics for clinicians: 23. Disclosure of medical error. CMAJ 2001;164(4):509-13. 21. Burrows J. Telling tales and saving lives: Whistleblowing The role of professional colleagues in protecting patients from dangerous doctors. Medical Law Review 2001;9: 110-29. 22. Position Statement: An ethics core curriculum for Australasian medical schools. Med J Aus 2001;175: 205-10. 23. Doyal L, Gillon R. Medical ethics and law as a core subject in medical education. BMJ 1998;316:1623-4. 24. Australian Medical Council. Goals and objectives of basic medical education. Guidelines for assessment and accreditation of medical schools. Canberra: AMC, 2000.

Free will and Science essays

Free will and Science essays If science is right, does that mean we dont have free will? What is free will? Free will is free in the sense that the human mind has the ability to consider multiple decisions and choose particular outcomes. In reality however, only one choice and only one decision is actually made. The makeup of the brain allows no uncaused, truly random or causeless factors to enter the process. But from the other perspective of the person making a decision, multiple decisions are possible, and multiple outcomes are well thought-out. If peoples behavior is fully explained by their genetics and environment, then so must be their beliefs. The fist thing that came to my mind in determining whether these factors science says influences us on our decision for having free will was homosexual beings. I have concluded that gays cant help being gay, and even perhaps that it would be too much too expect someone with that genetic tendency to abstain from all homosexual behavior, even if not particular acts at particular times. Homosexuals claim that they do not have a choice to become heterosexual due to genetics. Do you think that a person is born gay and is aware growing up who they are and what they stand for then one day chooses not to be gay anymore? I think not, genetic factors is something that you cant just snap out of and choose not to be that way, they influence our choice if we even have one when it comes to these factors. I dont believe that genes alone determine our actions, but all of our experiences added to the determinants. Of course we can choose to hit someone, ride our bike, or go out to eat, but we cannot freely choose who we are and what we are made of? Free will to me is more or less the ability to independently consider and choose between different alternatives, but sometimes due to genetic factors we have no choice (being gay). What about people who have a disability ...

Workplace Learning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Workplace Learning - Essay Example The conscious development of the formal and informal learning fronts in work place sites has culminated from the management decisiveness on the aspects of competitiveness and as well product and market strategies. "The development has come from the frameworks within which decisions are taken regarding the factors of how work is organized within an organisational and also how people are managed." (Coombs, P.H. 1985) Various scholars as well as other researchers have concurred that the integration of various economic and commercial factors has had a significant bearing on the establishment of the broad parameters in which opportunities and obstacles to the effectual existence of work place learning obtain. Research outcomes have led to positions that expansive rather that restrictive environment are perceived to be pro-learning at work as well as the convergence of personal and organisational development. Researches into various workplace domain dynamics have culminated in the establishment of a theoretical framework that seeks to explain and contextualise the dynamics around which the manner in which new entrants into a career acquire knowledge and skills that empower them tackle the challenges posed by their career compositions. The dimension of workplace newcomers has been relished with valuable contributions from Lave and Wenger who developed the interlinked tenets of legitimate peripheral participation as well as communities of practice to explain how workplace newcomers (the valid peripheral partakers) develop to full participant status in a defined community of practice. Watkins, K. E. (2001) concur that the newcomers are perceived to embrace learning as a collective relational process which entails the cooperation of the novices with the more experienced personnel. "In our perspective , the acquisition of knowledge is not merely situated in practice like it were some independently definable prices that just occurred to be situated somewhere; the acquisition of knowledge in an integral part of generative social practice in the lived-in world". (Lave and Wenger 1991) Lave and Wenger view the situated learning theory as an essential thrust for those areas tied to social practice as well as that in has contributions to attempts at surmounting what has been called by theorists (Engerstrom 1991) as "The encapsulation of school of learning". Much interest that has been culminated from the forerunning frameworks and ideas on apprenticeship and education has been directed to the non-formal or structured environs. The interest has lead many scholars to invest into researches of workplace learning. Expansive Learning has is enunciated in Engestrom's model of expansive learning. The thrust of the theoretical framework is aimed at fostering significant changes at organisational levels of entities." the object of expansive learning is knowledge impartation process in which the learners are involved." According to the scholars, expansive learning activities generate culturally new trends of activity. Further, expansive learning at work particularly generates new forms of work activity" (Fuller and Unwin 2008, p 129) Basing on the frame work of the expansive learning

1) Unit of work for listening and speaking skills for ESL primary Essay

1) Unit of work for listening and speaking skills for ESL primary Enlish classroom. 2) An stating the rationale, theoretical principles, reflection for th - Essay Example Not all aspects of the text chat and face-to-face environments are similar. In text chat, it is possible for several participants to participate simultaneously. This unit is designed for the pupils of primary level around the age of 10 years. This unit contains some dialogues, narratives and some interesting and absorbing exercises for enhancing listening and speaking capabilities of pupils. The topic of unit is quite interesting. The unit revolves round the unlucky Friday 13th. It focuses on the superstitious aspect of western culture. The topic of unit not teaches language skills but it also introduces non-native pupils to the culture of the western society. The unit theme is quite absorbing and motivating. Pupils would automatically try to speak about the unfortunate incidents took place in the life Emily on that unlucky Friday. A lesson plan is a comprehensive and predetermined schedule of every activity of teacher in classroom for achieving optimal results. A lesson plan can be of many forms and types. It usually depends on time span, style of educator and type of subject to be taught. But the basic and main objective of any type of lesson plan is to provide teacher a pre-planned line of action for presenting materials and interacting with learners. The lesson plan should not be merely a action plan but it should provide a useful link between objectives of curriculum and material to be taught. Motivate students by telling them about the poor Emily who faced lot of hardships on unlucky Friday. Tell the students background of Friday 13th that is considered unlucky. Tell them how much hardships she faced on that particular day but how boldly she faced them. Encourage students to be bold if such situation may arise in their daily routine. It will create intimacy with the character. Tell the students the how important is listening for correct speaking. Tell them